English-speaking jobs in Europe are professional roles across the continent where English is the primary working language, welcoming international candidates from diverse backgrounds. According to LinkedIn’s Economic Graph, demand for English-speaking professionals continues to grow in technology, finance, consulting, and international business sectors throughout Europe. This guide covers everything you need: from what defines these opportunities, top sectors, country and city comparisons, remote and hybrid work options, to salary expectations, visa requirements, application strategies, and how platforms like Faruse support your job search. Keep reading to make informed career, relocation, and application decisions for your move to Europe.

Understanding English-Speaking Jobs in Europe: What Are They and Why Do They Matter?

English-speaking jobs in Europe are professional positions where English is the primary or a highly preferred language for business communication, making them accessible to international candidates regardless of local language fluency. These jobs span a wide range of industries including technology, finance, consulting, marketing, sales, engineering, education, and healthcare.

Quick answer: English-speaking jobs in Europe offer international candidates the chance to work across borders in competitive industries, with English as the main working language, even if based in non-English-speaking countries.

English-speaking jobs are important because they bridge the talent gap in Europe’s globalised business landscape, provide access to high-demand roles for non-native speakers, and support innovation through diverse teams. The European Labour Authority notes that companies with multilingual and international staff often outperform their peers in market expansion and product development.

These roles are found in multinational corporations, startups, universities, research centres, and international NGOs. In cities like Berlin, Amsterdam, and Zurich, many employers default to English in the workplace, particularly in technology, consulting, science, and creative sectors. While local-language proficiency can expand options, English is the primary requirement for thousands of open roles.

For non-EU nationals, these jobs may offer a route to obtain a work visa if the employer is authorised to sponsor international talent, though requirements and processes differ between countries. For EU nationals, the internal market enables free movement for such roles with relatively fewer administrative hurdles.

DID YOU KNOW: According to the European Commission, over 50% of job listings in European tech hubs now require business-level English as the main working language.

In real international job searches, English-speaking jobs provide a practical pathway for professionals aiming to relocate, gain international experience, and secure competitive salaries without fluency in the local language. These roles are central to the mobility of global talent across European markets.

KEY TAKEAWAY: English-speaking jobs in Europe open doors for international candidates to work in leading sectors and dynamic cities regardless of local language skills.

Next, we’ll explore the top markets, cities, and sectors hiring for these roles and how to navigate their unique demands.

Top Countries and Cities for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

The best countries and cities for English-speaking jobs in Europe include major economies and international hubs with strong demand for global talent. These locations host multinational headquarters, global tech companies, financial institutions, and vibrant startup scenes where English is widely used professionally.

Quick answer: Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, France, Sweden, and Belgium lead for English-speaking jobs in Europe, with Berlin, Amsterdam, Zurich, Paris, Stockholm, and Brussels as top destination cities.

Here’s a breakdown of leading countries and cities, along with their main industries and job market characteristics:

Berlin is a top choice with more than 20% of its tech job postings listed in English, according to LinkedIn’s job market data. Amsterdam consistently ranks among the top European cities for international professionals, with English as the primary working language in many companies and a large expatriate community.

Key cities also include Paris, Zurich, Brussels, Stockholm, Munich, Rotterdam, Barcelona, Madrid, Copenhagen, and Geneva—each offering distinct sector strengths and English-friendly ecosystems.

In these markets, international candidates can find abundant roles using Faruse’s country-specific job search, such as English-speaking jobs in Germany or English-speaking jobs in the Netherlands, as well as dedicated pages for cities like Berlin and Amsterdam.

TIP: Start your country or city research early, as market expectations and visa requirements can vary widely by location, role type, and sector demand.

KEY TAKEAWAY: The leading countries and cities for English-speaking jobs in Europe offer vibrant job markets for international professionals, but city-level differences in role types, salary, and visa options should be considered.

We’ll now look at high-demand industries and job categories for English-speaking candidates in Europe.

Best Industries, Sectors, and Role Types for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

The top industries for English-speaking jobs in Europe are technology, finance, consulting, engineering, life sciences, sales, marketing, international business, and customer support. Each sector offers a unique mix of roles suited for candidates with strong English skills, international backgrounds, and in-demand expertise.

Quick answer: Technology, finance, consulting, science, sales, marketing, education, and business development are the best sectors for English-speaking jobs in Europe—especially in major cities and multinational firms.

The table below breaks down common roles, typical salary ranges (cautiously framed), English skill requirements, and likelihood of employer visa sponsorship for international professionals:

*Salary figures are indicative only and vary by country, city, employer, and experience level. Always benchmark actual offers using salary research tools and market data.

Roles in technology, finance, and consulting offer the broadest entry for English-speaking applicants—especially with skills in AI, software, data analytics, financial modeling, management consulting, and digital marketing. Sales, business development, and customer support roles remain accessible through global contact centers, SaaS companies, and e-commerce firms.

Sector-specific hiring is often concentrated in major hubs—Berlin and Amsterdam for tech, Zurich and Frankfurt for finance, Paris and Brussels for consulting, and Stockholm for startups and innovation. Education and research offer opportunities at international schools, universities, and language institutes, especially for experienced instructors or researchers.

DID YOU KNOW: According to the OECD’s Skills Outlook, Europe faces ongoing shortages in IT, healthcare, and engineering, increasing demand for skilled English-speaking professionals in these sectors.

International candidates with unique language skills or multicultural competencies may find added value in client-facing, sales, and business expansion functions where cross-border understanding is key.

KEY TAKEAWAY: High-demand sectors for English-speaking jobs in Europe span technology, consulting, finance, science, sales, marketing, and education, with strong opportunities in major cities and global firms.

Next, let’s explore emerging work formats: remote jobs, hybrid models, part-time, freelance, graduate roles, and internships.

Remote, Hybrid, Part-Time, Freelance, Graduate, and Internship Roles in Europe

Remote jobs, hybrid work, part-time, freelance opportunities, graduate programs, and internships have expanded access to English-speaking jobs, making European careers more flexible and accessible to international candidates. These formats suit a wide variety of professional, academic, and lifestyle goals.

Quick answer: Europe offers a dynamic mix of remote, hybrid, part-time, freelance, graduate, and internship roles in English, especially in technology, marketing, sales, and international business fields.

Here’s a summary of these opportunity types:

Remote jobs are particularly strong in technology, SaaS, creative, and customer support. Employers in cities like Berlin, Amsterdam, and Stockholm often offer remote-first policies or hybrid work models, welcoming international applications. Part-time and freelance roles can be a strategic entry for candidates needing flexibility or aiming to build local experience pre-relocation.

Graduate programs in Europe—often led by large corporations and consultancies—offer relocation support, training, mentorship, and international exposure. Internships, available in almost every major European country, give candidates hands-on experience and can serve as stepping stones to full-time English-speaking jobs, especially if paired with in-demand language or technical skills.

For every work type, application procedures, employer expectations, and visa eligibility criteria can differ. Always check job details and use platforms like Faruse to filter by preferred contract type and location for accurate matching.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Europe’s remote, hybrid, part-time, freelance, graduate, and internship roles in English offer flexible entry points to the continent’s professional landscape, especially for international candidates.

Next, we’ll explore salary expectations, benchmarking, and how to plan compensation discussions.

Understanding Salaries and Compensation for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

Salaries for English-speaking jobs in Europe vary significantly by country, city, role, experience level, and sector. International candidates should benchmark compensation using up-to-date data and consider cost of living, tax implications, and typical benefits when comparing roles.

Quick answer: Salaries for English-speaking jobs in Europe can range from €35,000 to €120,000 annually, with major tech and finance hubs typically offering higher median pay—always verify with recent recruiter data and salary benchmarks.

To simplify the market, here’s an indicative salary table by sector and city (note: always cross-check using Faruse’s salary benchmark tool):

*Ranges are directional; actual offers depend on employer, personal experience, and market trends. Research salary by title and city before negotiation.

According to Eurostat, Western and Northern European cities offer the highest salary potential, but cost of living in Zurich, Amsterdam, Paris, and Stockholm can offset headline pay. Benefits such as visa support, relocation allowances, language courses, health insurance, and pension contributions are negotiation points that add value beyond base salary.

Employers typically expect salary discussions only after the first or second interview round. For non-EU applicants, justify your salary request by highlighting global experience, unique skills, and relocation readiness, reinforcing the business case for your hire.

DID YOU KNOW: Many European countries publish minimum gross salary requirements for certain work visas. Always verify with the local immigration authorities before applying.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Salary ranges for English-speaking jobs in Europe are competitive—but always benchmark by role, city, and visa status to plan realistic negotiations.

The next section covers one of the most important factors for international candidates: visas and work permits for English-speaking jobs.

Visa and Work Permit Requirements for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

Visa and work permit requirements for English-speaking jobs in Europe depend on your nationality, the target country, sector demand, employer sponsorship status, and role seniority. Navigating these requirements is crucial for non-EU/EEA candidates, while EU/EEA and Swiss citizens benefit from free movement within most of the continent.

Quick answer: Non-EU candidates typically need employer sponsorship for a work permit; requirements, salary thresholds, and timelines differ by country, role, and your home nationality—always consult official immigration sources and use visa intelligence tools for current rules.

Here’s a framework to understand key requirements across major countries (always confirm with official government resources):

*Timelines and salary thresholds are indicative. Rules change regularly—always confirm before applying. See the Faruse visa intelligence page for current details.

For graduate programs and internships, some countries offer special visas for young professionals, trainees, or exchange programs—check specifics for each market. Employers must usually be licensed sponsors, and not all companies are registered to hire non-EU nationals. The European Commission provides further country-by-country breakdowns via the EURES portal.

IMPORTANT: Never rely on outdated or unofficial advice—visa rules, job market eligibility, and salary minimums can change suddenly, especially regarding quotas and labor market testing for non-EU applicants.

For EU/EEA citizens, most borders are open for work without extra documentation aside from proof of ID, though local registration may still be required in some markets. EU Blue Card schemes and local equivalents are often the fastest routes to skilled worker rights for high-earning non-EU candidates.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Non-EU/EEA candidates need employer sponsorship, a qualifying salary, and current documentation—always confirm with official immigration sources and use visa intelligence tools for the latest rules.

The next section covers CV and job application expectations across European employers and platforms.

CV and Job Application Expectations for English-Speaking Roles in Europe

European employers expect concise, targeted CVs and tailored cover letters for English-speaking jobs, with a focus on relevant skills, achievements, and cross-cultural competencies. Generic, one-size-fits-all applications are less effective in competitive markets—especially for international candidates.

Quick answer: The best way to apply for English-speaking jobs in Europe is to submit a tailored CV and cover letter for each position, focusing on relevant skills, international experience, and employer needs.

Here’s a step-by-step CV application workflow for candidates aiming for English-speaking roles in Europe:

European CVs are usually 1–2 pages, reverse chronological, and avoid excessive detail, photographs (unless industry standard), or personal data not required by law. Highlight international experience, language skills, and relevant achievements in clear bullet points. Use cover letters to connect your background to the company’s goals, showing understanding of its business model and client base.

Faruse supports candidates with CV and cover letter optimization tools for English-speaking European roles, increasing application relevance and ATS pass rates.

TIP: Many European employers use ATS to pre-screen applications—matching keywords from the job posting boosts your chance of reaching human recruiters.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Tailored, role-specific CVs and cover letters—highlighting language skills and international experience—are essential for securing interviews for English-speaking jobs in Europe.

Next, let’s review the complete job search workflow for international candidates targeting Europe.

The Step-by-Step Workflow: How to Find and Apply for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

The most effective way to find English-speaking jobs in Europe is to define your target, research market demand, prepare optimized documents, use vetted job search platforms, and apply strategically—tracking progress and following up.

Quick answer: Efficient English-speaking job search in Europe depends on market targeting, document readiness, focused applications, and proactive recruiter outreach.

1. Define Your Target Roles, Industries, and Locations

   Start by researching which roles, sectors, and countries align with your skills and career aspirations. Use tools like Faruse to filter jobs by location and sector.

2. Research Market Demand and Visa Requirements

   Identify which markets have skills shortages for your profile and check visa sponsorship norms using the visa intelligence page and government sources.

3. Prepare Your CV and Cover Letter

   Optimize documents for European employer expectations—concise, tailored, and highlighting English language skills and relevant achievements.

4. Apply via Specialized Platforms and Employer Portals

   Use trusted platforms like Faruse’s English-speaking job listings, company career pages, and direct recruiter contacts.

5. Shortlist Companies and Discover Recruiters

   Use company search and recruiter discovery to target strategic employers and specialist recruiters who work with international candidates.

6. Track Your Applications and Follow Up

   Keep a record of where and when you’ve applied. Send polite follow-ups if you don’t hear back after two weeks.

7. Prepare for Interviews and Offer Negotiations

   Research local interview styles and prepare for online/video interviews. Benchmark salary against the city, industry, and visa level.

8. Confirm Visa, Relocation, and Onboarding Steps

   Once offered, ensure all paperwork and required translations are in order, and receive official offer documents before resigning from your current role or making relocation arrangements.

The complete workflow is illustrated below for easy reference:

If you are comparing countries, roles, and application requirements, start by browsing English-speaking jobs in Europe and shortlist roles that match your experience, salary expectations, and visa situation.

KEY TAKEAWAY: A job search for English-speaking roles in Europe succeeds when you target the right markets, tailor your documents, use specialist platforms, and follow a structured workflow from application to onboarding.

What matters next is choosing the best job board, platform, or application strategy for your needs—we’ll break this down in the next section.

Choosing the Best Platforms, Websites, and Resources for English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

The most effective platforms for finding English-speaking jobs in Europe are specialized job boards, career platforms with international focus, vetted recruiter directories, and employer career pages. Combining these increases the chance of finding legitimate, high-quality opportunities.

Quick answer: Specialized platforms like Faruse, supplemented by EURES, LinkedIn, and company career pages, are the most effective places to find English-speaking jobs in Europe—especially for international professionals seeking sponsorship or relocation.

Here’s a comparison table of major resource types and what each offers:

Specialist platforms like Faruse uniquely combine English-speaking jobs in Europe with recruiter, company, salary, visa, and relocation intelligence, streamlining both job discovery and application optimization for international candidates. EURES is ideal for EU/EEA nationals leveraging free movement, while LinkedIn excels for networking and recruiter connection.

Job boards that are not tailored for international or English-speaking roles may produce high volumes of irrelevant postings and can be less effective for visa-dependent candidates. Combining platforms and direct employer outreach is often the smartest approach.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Specialized platforms like Faruse, along with targeted use of EURES and LinkedIn, maximize your chances of landing English-speaking jobs in Europe, especially for non-EU nationals and candidates needing relocation support.

Next, we address common mistakes candidates make—and how to avoid them for a stronger job search.

Common Mistakes, Challenges, and Application Barriers for International Candidates

International candidates often face barriers in their English-speaking job search, from applying with generic CVs to misunderstanding visa requirements and failing to tailor applications for local employer expectations.

Quick answer: The most common mistakes in applying for English-speaking jobs in Europe are using one-size-fits-all CVs, neglecting visa realities, ignoring recruiter outreach, and under-researching market-specific differences.

Here are challenges to watch for and how to avoid them:

• Generic Applications: Submitting the same CV and cover letter everywhere usually results in poor response rates. Employers expect targeted materials for each job.
• Insufficient Visa Preparation: Failing to check if an employer sponsors visas or if your profile meets national requirements leads to wasted effort and disappointment.
• Under-Researched Markets: Not understanding local salary ranges, role titles, or cultural nuances can result in misaligned applications or poor negotiation outcomes.
• Lack of Recruiter Networking: Not reaching out to recruiters specializing in international/relocation placements means missing hidden jobs not advertised on job boards.
• Ignoring Language Requirements: Many roles require business or conversational English, but some demand basic local language for client-facing, legal, or operational reasons—always check the job spec.
• Poor Application Tracking: Failing to record where, when, and how you apply leads to missed follow-ups and duplicate submissions.
• Unrealistic Timeline Expectations: Many international applications and visa processes take longer than domestic searches—patience and planning are essential.

TIP: Use careful application tracking and assign time each week to identify and connect with recruiters, not just apply for posted jobs.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Avoid generic applications, research each market, confirm employer sponsorship, tailor each submission, and build professional recruiter relationships to overcome barriers to English-speaking jobs in Europe.

Now, let’s break down how Faruse supports each stage of this process for international applicants.

How Faruse Helps International Candidates Find English-Speaking Jobs in Europe

Faruse is a European career platform designed for international professionals, students, graduates, expats, and relocation-focused candidates seeking English-speaking jobs, internships, remote and freelance roles, graduate programs, and salary benchmarks across Europe’s top markets.

Quick answer: Faruse helps international candidates discover, compare, and prepare for English-speaking jobs in Europe by providing optimized job listings, AI-powered matching, CV and cover letter tools, recruiter and company databases, salary benchmarking, and visa intelligence—all tailored for cross-border job seekers.

The main ways Faruse supports your job search journey are:

• Targeted Job Discovery: Search and filter thousands of English-speaking jobs in Europe by country, city, sector, role, and work contract type (remote, onsite, part-time, etc.).
• Internships and Graduate Roles: Find English-speaking internships and graduate programs across top employers and sectors.
• Remote and Flexible Work: Filter for remote jobs in Europe, part-time, and freelance contracts targeting international candidates.
• Company and Recruiter Data: Review company profiles and discover recruiters who place global professionals in your field.
• AI-Powered Job Matching: Use advanced search and AI tools to match your experience, interests, and visa eligibility to available roles.
• CV and Cover Letter Optimization: Build, review, and improve your documents for European employer and ATS standards, increasing interview invitations.
• Salary Benchmarking and Visa Intelligence: Access relevant salary data and up-to-date visa requirements for your target market and profile.

Faruse is especially useful for:

• Non-EU professionals needing employer sponsorship
• Graduates, students, and early-career professionals seeking their first international move
• Remote workers and freelancers navigating cross-border contracts
• Experienced candidates aiming for relocation, higher salaries, or sector change

While Faruse cannot guarantee a job, interview, relocation, or visa approval, it offers structured resources, updated market intelligence, and decision-support tools for each stage of the job search.

KEY TAKEAWAY: Faruse integrates English-speaking job discovery, application support, recruiter access, salary benchmarking, and visa guidance for international candidates planning a move to Europe.

For more advanced strategies, let’s probe some persistent myths about English-speaking job search in Europe—and reveal what the data shows.

Common Myths About Finding English-Speaking Jobs in Europe Debunked

MYTH: “You must be fluent in the local language to land a good job in Europe.”

FACT: Many roles, especially in technology, finance, consulting, and multinationals, list English as the only necessary business language—especially in major cities and global companies. Language fluency helps, but it’s not a universal barrier for English-speaking jobs.

MYTH: “Only EU/EEA nationals can get English-speaking jobs in Europe.”

FACT: Non-EU candidates regularly find jobs with visa sponsorship, especially in high-demand roles. Visa requirements vary, but numerous European companies are licensed sponsors for skilled talent willing to relocate.

MYTH: “Applying with the same CV everywhere increases your chances.”

FACT: Generic CVs often result in automatic filtering. Tailored, role-specific CVs and cover letters that match employer needs are much more likely to reach interview stages.

MYTH: “You can rely on job boards alone to find all open jobs.”

FACT: Many positions are filled via recruiter networks, referrals, or direct employer outreach. Combining job board search with active networking maximizes job discovery.

MYTH: “If the job posting is in English, the employer will support relocation or sponsor a visa.”

FACT: Some companies list jobs in English but are unable to sponsor non-EU candidates—always verify sponsorship policies and requirements before applying.

KEY TAKEAWAY: English-speaking jobs in Europe are accessible to motivated international candidates, but success depends on research, tailored applications, and understanding employer and visa realities.

Let’s now answer the most frequently asked questions about English-speaking jobs in Europe.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are English-speaking jobs in Europe?

English-speaking jobs in Europe are professional roles where English is the primary language for workplace communication, regardless of the country’s native language. These roles are most common in international business, technology, finance, consulting, and sectors with global clients. They allow non-native speakers to work effectively without local language fluency, though additional languages may be beneficial for certain positions.

How can I find English-speaking jobs in Europe?

To find English-speaking jobs in Europe, use specialized platforms such as Faruse, which aggregates roles by country, city, sector, and contract type. Supplement your search with LinkedIn, EURES, and direct company career pages. Research target countries, tailor your CV and cover letter to each role, and connect with recruiters for hidden opportunities not publicly listed.

Do I need to speak the local language to get an English-speaking job in Europe?

No, many employers only require business-level English, especially in large cities and multinational firms. However, learning basic local language can be beneficial for social integration, teamwork, and daily life. Some roles, particularly in client-facing or public sector jobs, may require additional language skills—always check the job listing for specifics.

Which countries in Europe are best for English-speaking jobs?

The Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, France, Belgium, Spain, and Denmark are among the top countries for English-speaking roles. Tech hubs like Berlin and Amsterdam, financial centers like Zurich, and international administrative cities like Brussels offer the highest concentration of English-medium positions according to EURES and LinkedIn analyses.

Are English-speaking jobs in Europe open to non-EU/EEA applicants?

Yes, many companies sponsor visas for non-EU/EEA nationals—especially in sectors with skilled talent shortages such as IT, engineering, consulting, and finance. Requirements include employer sponsorship, a qualifying job offer, and meeting local salary thresholds. Research your eligibility in advance using the Faruse visa intelligence page and official immigration resources.

What is the typical salary for English-speaking jobs in Europe?

Salaries vary by country, city, role, and experience level. On average, roles in technology, finance, and consulting in major cities offer between €45,000 and €120,000 per year. Always use local salary benchmarks, such as the Faruse salary research tool, to set realistic expectations and negotiate confidently.

How should I prepare my CV and cover letter for English-speaking jobs?

Focus on conciseness (1–2 pages for CV), role-specific achievements, and business English. Tailor each document to the given job, emphasize international experience, and use relevant keywords from the job posting. Cover letters should connect your experience to the company’s goals and show your motivation for the role and market. Faruse offers tools for both CV and cover letter optimization.

Do all English-speaking jobs come with visa sponsorship?

No, not all jobs offer sponsorship. Even if a posting is in English, sponsorship depends on employer policy, role seniority, and national immigration regulations. Always clarify visa support before applying or during the first interview rounds, and work with employers or recruiters who have a clear record of international hiring.

Are internships and graduate programs available in English for international students?

Yes, hundreds of companies hire international students and graduates for English-speaking internships and graduate programs. Opportunities are especially strong in technology, finance, consulting, and research. Faruse hosts dedicated listings for English-speaking internships and graduate programs in Europe.

Is remote work common for English-speaking jobs in Europe?

Remote work has grown significantly since 2020, particularly in IT, SaaS, sales, digital marketing, and customer support. Many employers offer full or hybrid remote models to attract international talent. Check specific job and company policies on remote eligibility and ensure your visa or right-to-work status aligns with employer requirements.

How long does an international job search in Europe usually take?

The process typically takes 3–6 months for international professionals, depending on your profile, target country, sector, and visa complexity. Non-EU/EEA applicants may require longer timelines due to sponsorship paperwork and relocation logistics. Start early, plan carefully, and be prepared for additional interviews and documentation checks.

Should I contact recruiters directly for English-speaking roles?

Yes, reaching out to specialized recruiters increases your access to hidden jobs and can accelerate your job search. Use platforms like Faruse’s recruiter directory to identify professionals focused on your target industry and market. Personalize your outreach with a focused, brief summary of your experience and goals.

What are the most common mistakes in the European job search?

Common mistakes include submitting generic applications, overlooking local market nuances, failing to confirm visa sponsorship, slow or missing follow-up, and misaligning salary expectations. Apply selectively, research each market, tailor every application, and maintain clear communication with both employers and recruiters.

How does Faruse help with English-speaking job search in Europe?

Faruse simplifies your job search by providing thousands of updated English-speaking jobs, internships, and graduate roles, along with AI-powered matching, salary benchmarking, recruiter databases, CV/cover letter tools, and up-to-date visa guidance. This supports a stronger, more focused application strategy for international job seekers planning a move to Europe.

Conclusion

English-speaking jobs in Europe provide international candidates with valuable career opportunities, flexible work formats, and pathways to relocation in some of the world’s most dynamic cities and sectors. To succeed, focus your search on target roles and countries, tailor every application, benchmark salaries, understand visa requirements, and use trusted platforms for job discovery and preparation. To move from research to action, start exploring English-speaking job opportunities on Faruse and build a focused application plan for your target country, city, and role.